8.1. India’s Nuclear Energy Program and Infrastructure

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India, following thermal, hydroelectric, and renewable sources. The country currently operates 22 nuclear reactors across 8 power plants, with a total installed capacity of 6780 MW. An additional 6 reactors are under construction, which are expected to add another 4,300 MW to the grid.

India’s nuclear journey began in 1957 with the inauguration of the Apsara research reactor. A key challenge has been the country’s limited domestic uranium reserves. To meet its needs, India imports uranium from Russia and has supply agreements with Argentina, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Namibia. A significant domestic discovery was made in 2011, when large deposits of uranium were found in the Tummalapalle belt in Karnataka.

The country’s operational nuclear power infrastructure, managed by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL), is distributed nationwide. The largest contribution comes from the Kudankulam plant in Tamil Nadu, an Indo-Russian collaboration providing 2,000 MW. Maharashtra’s Tarapur facility adds 1,400 MW, while the Rawatbhata plant in Rajasthan contributes a significant 1,180 MW. Other key operational plants include the Kaiga station in Karnataka (880 MW), and three plants each contributing 440 MW: Kakrapar in Gujarat, Kalpakkam (Madras) in Tamil Nadu, and Narora in Uttar Pradesh.

India is actively expanding this capacity. Projects currently under construction include new units at Kudankulam (2,000 MW), Kakrapar (1,400 MW), and Rajasthan (1,400 MW), along with a 500 MW fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam. Furthermore, an ambitious slate of planned projects signals a long-term commitment. These include massive international collaborations, such as the 9,900 MW Jaitapur plant in Maharashtra with France and a 6,600 MW plant in Kovvada, Andhra Pradesh. Additional large-scale projects are planned for Gorakhpur in Haryana (2,800 MW), Mahi Banswara in Rajasthan (2,800 MW), and Chutka in Madhya Pradesh (1,400 MW), among others.

8.2. India’s Strategic Nuclear and Defence Programs

India’s strategic nuclear program began in 1967, leading to its first nuclear weapon test in 1974 and a series of further tests in 1998. While possessing nuclear weapons, India has also committed to international arms control frameworks. It has ratified the Biological and Chemical Weapons Conventions and is a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime.

Biological and Chemical Warfare Stance

• Biological Warfare: Although India possesses the scientific and technological capability to create biological weapons, it has pledged not to do so. The nation is a ratifying member of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). Former President Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam articulated this stance by stating, “India will not make biological weapons, as is cruel to human beings.”
• Chemical Warfare: Similarly, India ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1997 and has committed to destroying its chemical weapon stockpiles, having destroyed over 70 percent of its declared stock by 2006.

India’s strategic deterrent is primarily based on its sophisticated and multi-platform missile capabilities. The land-based component is built upon the deployed Prithvi series of short-range ballistic missiles and the formidable Agni series, which provides medium-to-intercontinental reach. Beyond these, the unconfirmed but widely discussed Surya program represents the ambition for a true intercontinental-range missile with a range of up to 16,000 km, likely equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRV).

The sea-based leg of the deterrent is equally robust. The Dhanush missile, a ship-launched short-range system with a 350 km range, has been inducted. This is complemented by a growing fleet of submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). The Sagarika (K-15), with a 700 km range, awaits deployment on the INS Arihant class submarines, while the more advanced K-4 SLBM has been tested and possesses a range of 3,500 km, significantly enhancing India’s second-strike capability.

8.3. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

The supreme body responsible for developing India’s defense technology is the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Established in 1958, the DRDO is a network of over 50 laboratories across the country, specializing in fields as diverse as aeronautics, electronics, armaments, missiles, combat vehicles, and life sciences.

Missile technology development began in India in the 1960s, with an early success being the Rohini-75 test in 1967. Military missiles are classified based on their targets, including Air-to-Air, Surface-to-Air, Air-to-Surface, and Surface-to-Surface systems.

A pivotal moment in this history was the launch of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP). Conceptualized by Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, the program’s objective was to achieve self-sufficiency in missile technology. Under the IGMDP, India successfully developed five key missile systems:

• Prithvi: A short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
• Trishul: A short-range surface-to-air missile.
• Akash: A medium-range surface-to-air missile.
• Nag: A third-generation anti-tank missile.

The Agni Series of Missiles

The Agni series, initially developed under the IGMDP, represents the backbone of India’s land-based strategic deterrent. These are medium to intercontinental range, nuclear-capable, surface-to-surface ballistic missiles that have evolved significantly over three decades.

• Agni-I: An operational medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) with a range of 700 to 1,250 km.
• Agni-II: An operational MRBM that extends India’s reach to between 2,000 and 3,000 km.
• Agni-III: An operational intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) with a range of 3,500 to 5,000 km.
• Agni-IV: An operational IRBM that further enhances capability with a range of 3,000 to 4,000 km.
• Agni-V: An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range between 5,000 and 8,000 km, which is currently undergoing testing.
• Agni-VI: A formidable ICBM currently under development, expected to have a range of 8,000 to 10,000 km and potentially MIRV capabilities.

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Concluding Remarks

From the foundational principles of science and technology to their profound impact on society, policy, industry, and national security, we have seen that S&T forms the central nervous system of modern India. The nation’s trajectory is a study in ambition, articulated through a robust institutional ecosystem and forward-looking policies. This ambition is balanced by the strategic imperatives of national security, which drive the development of indigenous defense and nuclear technologies. As India navigates the new frontiers of AI, biotechnology, and nanotechnology, it confronts the core challenge of the 21st century: how to translate its immense scientific potential into sustainable, inclusive, and secure development for its billion-plus citizens. The policies it enacts and the innovations it fosters in the coming decades will not only define its own future but will also significantly shape the global technological landscape.